Publication year: 2011
Source: Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, Volume 3, Issue 4, September 2011, Pages 241-247

Gwenaelle Legros, Stephen Gitonga, Kamal Rijal

About 1.5 billion people in developing countries lack access to electricity and about three billion people rely on solid fuels — traditional biomass (2.6 billion) and coal (0.4 billion) — for cooking. Although energy access varies widely across developing countries, it is much lower in poorer developing countries compared to other developing countries, placing poor countries at a huge disadvantage; it is also less in rural than in urban areas. Modern fuels and improved cooking stoves to meet most basic cooking needs of households are out of the reach of most households in developing countries, particularly in rural areas. Worldwide, almost two million deaths that occur annually from pneumonia, chronic lung disease and lung cancer are associated with exposure to indoor air pollution as a result of cooking with traditional biomass and coal, and 99% of these are in developing countries.The national targets for access to modern forms of energy (electricity and modern fuels) to meet their energy services (lighting, cooking, heating, motive power and communication), both in rural and urban areas, vary across the regions. Most developing countries lag far behind in expanding access to modern energy services especially for the poor, not only slowing the pace of achieving the Millennium Development Goals but also impeding their aspirations for growth and sustainable development.

Highlights

► About 1.5 billion people in developing countries lack access to electricity. ► About 3 billion people cook with solid fuels — traditional biomass (2.6 billion) and coal (0.4 billion). ► Modern fuels and stoves are out of the reach for the majority of households in rural areas. ► Many countries do not have energy access targets in place, particularly for mechanical power or modern fuels. ► Given current trends, levels of modern energy access compatible with reaching the Millennium Development Goals will in many instances not be met.

Publication year: 2011
Source: Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, Available online 1 September 2011

Cecile AM de Klein, Ross M Monaghan

The increased availability of reactive nitrogen (Nr) has led to intensification of animal production systems and consequently to increases in gaseous emissions and N leaching. Current options for reducing the environmental footprint from pastoral systems whilst meeting the growing demand for milk and meat include: nitrification inhibitors that keep N in the less mobile ammonium form for longer period, restricted grazing to minimise the deposition of urine patches to pastures at high-risk times of the year, using maize or cereal silage, and ‘edge-of-field’ attenuation systems. A modelling assessment suggests that these options, alone or in combination, can reduce total losses from current systems. However, these reductions are not likely to offset any increase in losses that may occur under future intensification. Nevertheless, these options are increasing the efficiency of dairy farming systems (reduced N losses per unit of product). The mitigation potential of the current options could be increased by exploiting spatial and temporal variability of N losses. In addition, research should continue to focus on developing new options for improving the efficiency of conversion of N into products, to ensure any gains in efficiency to match the expected rate of productivity increase.

Highlights

► Current N mitigation options can reduce total N losses from pastoral systems. ► The reductions are not likely to off-set any increase in losses that may occur under future intensification. ► There are no ‘silver bullet’ options and packages of measures are required to make the necessary gains. ► The options are increasing the efficiency of dairy farming systems and can reduce the N losses per unit of milk produced. ► The mitigation potential of the current options could be increased by exploiting spatial and temporal variability of N losses. ► Improved animal and plant interventions for improving the efficiency of conversion of N into products are required, to ensure any gains in efficiency match the expected rate of productivity increase.

Publication year: 2011
Source: Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, Volume 3, Issue 4, September 2011, Pages 225-234

Larry Hughes, Jacinda Rudolph

With the exception of two oil shocks in the 1970s, world oil production experienced steady growth throughout the 20th century, from about 400,000 barrels a day in 1900 to over 74 million by 1999. Conservative projections from the International Energy Agency for 2035 suggest that production will increase to about 96 million barrels a day. If this target is met, world oil production will have exceeded 2000 gigabarrels (billion barrels) in the span of 135 years. Almost all of the oil products humans consume are derived from sources that are non-renewable. With this in mind, this paper considers how long world oil production can continue to grow or if it will eventually plateau or peak and then decline. The paper concludes with the observation that whether peak oil has already occurred or will not occur for many years, societies should be prepared for a world with less oil.

Highlights

â–º World supplies of conventional crude oil appear to have reached a plateau. â–º Depletion rates may overwhelm supplies of natural gas liquids and non-conventional sources. â–º Renewables may not be able to fill the need for liquid fuels, either through replacement or restriction policies. â–º Non-conventional sources such as heavy oils, tar sands, and coal-to-liquids can be expected to contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. â–º Any challenges to the availability or affordability of liquid fuels will have serious consequences for energy security.

Publication year: 2011
Source: Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, Available online 7 September 2011

Wilfried Winiwarter, Zbigniew Klimont

Reactive nitrogen compounds play a key role both in air pollution and its multiple effects and as greenhouse gas. The well-known interferences of environmental nitrogen pertain to their behavior in general, but also affect their release to the atmosphere and any measures to control such a release. Considerable interest exists in the scientific literature compiled here to investigate such interferences, with a focus on co-benefits. Cost considerations are essential information for policy purposes, and costs can be divided among environmental targets if co-benefits of measures can be identified. Recent scientific work demonstrates that abatement of nitrogen compounds (especially ammonia and nitrogen oxides) is decisive for cost-efficient reduction of the effects of air pollution, like the impacts of nitrogen deposition on ecosystems or its contribution to formation of secondary ozone and particulate matter and associated health effects. Likewise, such results show that cost efficient abatement of greenhouse gases also needs to include mitigation of nitrous oxide emissions.

Highlights

► Quantitative results on damage and abatement costs of N pollution are available ► NH3abatement is the top cost-effective measure for low ambition policy. ► Reducing NOxis the most efficient strategy at higher costs. ► N2O mitigation is cost efficient but offers limited potential compared to CO2. ► Air pollutant–greenhouse gas interactions remain to be a challenge.